Similarly, the change to a factory-oriented nation was hard on industrialists. Much of the adult workforce had no training in using the machines and took time to master the new techniques (Basu and Van, 1998). It was longer and more expensive to teach adults than to hire children at the start of the revolution. Children could become the ideal adult worker as they moved up the ranks in the factory. Studies indicate that approximately 50% of workers began working in factories when they were under ten years old; of this overall figure, 28% of these child workers started working when they were under fourteen years old, while only 7.8% of workers started working in textiles from the age of twenty-one (Nardinelli, 1980). The aging of the generation of child factory workers has improved the quality of adult workers and created a reserve of adults with factory experience. This pool of adults was particularly important for men. As child workers, they were exposed to many different positions and gained a lot of experience as a result. Not only did the children meet the basic needs of the factory, but they also created a more experienced workforce for the future. These were no longer adults who had to learn how to operate machines to enter the factory market, but who had worked in textiles as children and therefore had already obtained the human capital necessary to work. The factory would then take advantage of this future human capital and thus continue to employ massive numbers of children in order to improve itself for the future while reaping the present value of cheap labor. With the underlying factors of cheap labor, inexpensive working conditions, and an ever-present labor market filled with willing children, the Industrial Revolution created a cost